Teaching, Learning & Teacher Education

Best for an overview or history of a research topic, finding the scholarly conversation, discovering empirical research studies, and identifying gaps in the research. 

Reviews and meta-analyses look at all the research studies conducted in a specific area, summarize them, analyze them, and draw conclusions based on the evidence. It’s one thing if you have a single study showing a correlation, it’s another if you have 50 studies across several populations that all show the same results. Or maybe the results are mixed. A review will determine whether the conclusion of a study was a single case or whether it has been repeated enough to show a pattern.

Reviews and meta-analyses look backwards in the scholarly conversation and take significant time to compile, which means they aren't the newest contributions. Be sure to search for research studies conducted since the review to ensure you're up to date on the current scholarly conversation. Someone may have closed the research gap mentioned in the article.

Here's what to look for to identify a review article or meta-analysis:

• Often includes the words meta-analysis, systematic review, or something similar in the title or abstract
• Written by experts who have spent significant time studying psychology and likely the specific area of research covered
• Found in a peer-reviewed journals
• Has sections with headings: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Discussion, Conclusion, Reference List, etc.
• Methodology will include databases searched, search terms used, and criteria for inclusion and exclusion rather than outlining an experiment 
• Look for citations and footnotes
• Longer than most Editorials or Commentaries
• Uses subject-specific, research level terminology
• Text heavy with charts or graphs and pictures only if necessary to the studies
• Includes an extensive Reference List

Best for finding practical teaching strategies to try in your classroom or an action research project that are based on empirical research evidence and learning theories. 

Professional articles help bridge the gap between theory and classroom application. They often translate complex educational research found in empirical studies and reviews into actionable strategies for the classroom. They can keep you informed and up to date on current classroom practices, and they can also act as a catalyst for reflecting on your own teaching.  

• May be found in peer-reviewed journals, government websites, or professional websites. Note that publication in a peer-reviewed journal does not always mean these articles are peer-reviewed. Check the journal website to be sure.
• May have headings, such as Abstract or Introduction, but they will lack Methodology and Results sections.
• Often shorter than empirical studies and reviews.
• Utilize less formal language.
• Can be written by teachers currently practicing in the classroom without PhDs or College/University Affiliations or by those with doctorates at a University. 
• Look for short introductions and summaries of activities. 

When you're choosing the best intervention or need models for analyzing a research study or methodology, commentaries are the way to go.

Commentaries, editorials, and opinions are typically written by a single, author or several, providing critique of a research study or meta-analysis. They point out gaps in the research, potential issues or blind spots with the methodology, or disagreements with the conclusions drawn from the results. They may also be a call to action or further study. Study authors may reply to these comments in the journal as well. The opinion articles and their replies do not go through the peer-review process.

You are asked to engage with research studies at a similar level of analysis to these commentaries. It can be helpful to see how researchers are analyzing research studies as you grow your analysis skills in your assignments and papers. Commentaries and editorials can also be helpful when choosing the best intervention or instructional model for your own best practice. The critiques given or the author's replies may provide the key to whether you use a certain instructional intervention or help you choose between several.

• Typically shorter than research articles
• Found in peer-reviewed journals but aren't peer-reviewed
• Provide commentary or critique on a specific research study or research area
• Often have few authors
• May or may not include citations or a reference list. If they do, it is relatively brief.
• Usually do not include section headings found in research papers or meta-analysis, such as Method, Results, Discussion, etc.

If you need a high-level overview or the definition of difficult terms, reference sources are the place to go.

Reference sources help you get your bearings and provide a starting point for your research. Empirical studies, reviews, meta-analyses, commentaries, and editorials are written by researchers for other researchers. They assume their audience already knows the definitions of the subject specialized terminology they use, and they don't always define these terms in language that is understandable to those just starting out with a the topic. This is where reference sources come in.

Reference sources, such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks, define terms, provide background, and give the broader context of terms and topics you'll find in peer-reviewed sources. 

• Typically a reference entry is shorter than research articles
• Found in encyclopedias, dictionaries, manuals, handbooks, etc.
• Easier to understand language that defines terms
• High level coverage of a word or topic
• Often has no author listed
• May or may not include citations or a reference list
• Usually does not include research study section headings (Method, Discussion, etc.)

Best for niche or new topics that don't have peer-reviewed studies published yet and for detailed literature reviews and methodologies. 

A dissertation is the final major requirement for a doctoral degree (Ph.D., Ed.D., etc.), and a thesis is the final major requirement for a masters degree. A dissertation is a document that presents the author's original research and findings, usually conducted over several years, to demonstrate their mastery of a subject and ability to contribute new knowledge to the field. It represents the newest and deepest dive into a specific, often very narrow, research question, complete with a comprehensive literature review and detailed methodology.

Dissertations are the rawest form of the research, often containing much more detail, especially in the methodology and appendix sections, than is possible to publish in a concise journal article. Due to their exhaustive nature, they can be lengthy and time-consuming to read, and they do not go through the formal peer-review process of a peer-reviewed journal, though they are reviewed by a dissertation committee and defended before completed. 

• Look for the word "Dissertation" or "Thesis" on the title page, abstract, or in the search result's document type.

• The author is typically listed as a candidate of a degree and the document will list the University it was submitted to and the year it was defended.

• Extremely long—over 50 pages—making them much longer than most journal articles or reviews.

• Includes all major scholarly sections: Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Detailed Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, and an Extensive Reference List/Bibliography.

• The Methodology section is exceptionally detailed, outlining every step of the study's design, participant recruitment, instrument validation, and data analysis.

• Often includes appendices with supplementary material such as survey instruments, interview protocols, or detailed data tables.

• Generally not found in peer-reviewed journals but rather in university repositories or databases like ProQuest Dissertations & Theses.